prosecuted; [Ministry of Justice and Constitutional Affairs, PCCB] • The legal framework for the anticorruption war be strengthened by (i) providing sufficient protection for whistleblowers; (ii) opening up access to declarations of assets and liabilities by public officials; and (iii) passing the Freedom of Information Bill into law. [Government of Tanzania, Parliament] Objective Seven: Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Women l. Summary of the CSAR 432. The CSAR states that, in addition to ratifying core international and regional human rights instruments relevant to women’s rights, the Constitution guarantees against gender-based discrimination and provides for the equality of all, including women. A number of laws were enacted to improve protections for women from injustice, practices that undermine their rights and lock their untapped potential. The 1999 Land Act and the 1999 Village Land Act provide for gender balance in land ownership, land acquisition, transfer and participation in land administration and decision-making. The Sexual Offences (Special Provisional) Act of 1998 provides safeguards for women against sexual abuse, while the Penal Code (Cap 16) criminalizes sexual- and gender-based violence. The Law of Marriage Act (Cap 29) also recognises married womens’ rights to property ownership along with men. 433. A Ministry of Community Development, Gender and Children was specially established to champion womens’ rights. Coupled with CHRAGG efforts, civil society organisations such as TGNP, TAMWA and TAWLA have responded by promoting womens’ status. Affirmative action-type education programmes, including a lowered pass mark for female student admission to universities, have also helped raise the level of girls’ and womens’ enrollment at all levels. 434. The CSAR notes a steady increase of women in senior civil service positions since 2003, reaching about 30 per cent in 2006. In addition, more women are acceding to key decision-making positions. In this respect, Tanzania adopted a quota system for women to increase their numbers on representative bodies. The Constitution guarantees special seats (30 per cent) for women in Parliament. Similarly, the Local Government Elections Act provides that one-third of elected councillors should be women. Between 1961 and 2010, womens’ representation in Parliament increased from 7.5 - 36 per cent. In 2010, 988 women sat on local councils as councilors, reflecting an increase from 940 in 2004. Tanzania continues to respond to the 50/50 benchmark set by the AU constituent declaration. 435. However, despite government efforts to mainstream gender in development policies and processes, the gender gap between men and women is increasing. Inherent contradictions in the very laws that were amended to protect womens’ progress are customary and religious norms and practices that have, in some cases, been legalized and are applied in resolving disputes. Low levels of literacy and awareness of women’s rights and how to enforce them, especially in rural areas, increased poverty and the vulnerability of women have only resulted in marginal improvements from Government efforts to protect womens’ rights. There continues to be a wide gender gap in the number of candidates nominated by political parties. Higher numbers of women in Parliament and on local councils should be seen to translate into qualitative changes in womens’ socio-economic and political status. 436. Gender-based violence is prevalent in Tanzania: rape, battery, and female genital mutilation affected 15 per cent of all women. Traditional practices and attitudes aggravate continued gender based-violence within and outside homes. Contrary to the MKUKUTA, the African on the Rights of Women and the national Policy on Aging, across the country women over 50 were victims of violence, often from accusations of witchcraft. More cases were reported in the north-western region, Mwanza, and Shinyanga regions. In many communities, deep-seated cultural beliefs, low status of women, poverty, apportioning blame in cases of calamities, and exploiting the vulnerability of elderly women have perpetuated this practice. 437. The Tanzania Gender Networking Program in 2007 identified other challenges facing women that are still valid today. They include limited gender mainstreaming as a consequence of poor gender disaggregation in policy and practice, weak gender indicators to track progress in development sectors, and inadequate technical 98