Education in practical and industrial fields, and in such areas as information technology (where market demands are high) has been lacking. In the period 2008–2010 nearly two-thirds of African students graduated in the humanities, social sciences, education, business and law. Fewer than 20% graduated in science, engineering or technology. And, disturbingly, given the role played by agriculture in Africa‘s economy and the opportunities that it presents as a supplier to the global market, only 2% of graduates in sub-Saharan Africa and 1% in North Africa specialised in agriculture. By comparison, some 26% of Asian students graduated in science, engineering and technology, and another 4% in agriculture. sector is under stress because of this.181 Skills shortages have kept people out of potentially lucrative business careers.182 In some countries, large parts of the economy are operated by expatriates, since local people lack the skills (at times, even relatively rudimentary ones) to perform needed work.183 What – or what more – can the APRM do about under-development of human resources The APRM has done a creditable job of identifying the difficulties that African countries are facing, and to some extent explaining some of the underlying dynamics. The APRM may further assist in this area by, e.g.: 1. Continuing to interrogate the problems facing the development of Africa‘s human resources; and 2. Undertaking or sponsoring research into solutions to these problems appropriate for resource-constrained environments. Developing human resources on the continent is a long-standing aspiration, and the CRRs indicate that African countries have attempted to do so, albeit with limited success. Research by the APRM‘s own staff, in collaboration with African think tanks and universities (perhaps even in exceptional cases with institutions outside the continent), could bring innovative thinking on these issues to the fore. Mention should also be made of the losses to the continent‘s skills base. These include skills lost to premature death – especially as a consequence of HIV/Aids170 – and emigration. 171 The latter has been touched on above, but its impact extends well beyond the health field. For example, the Algeria CRR notes a loss of considerable entrepreneurial and professional skills in this way.172 The skills shortage amplifies difficulties in governance. Without the necessary professional skills, bureaucracies struggle to perform their mandated tasks. Several CRRs point to this as a generalised problem, 173 while others point to more specific challenges. For example, the Lesotho and Burkina Faso CRRs link failures in corruption control to skills shortages.174 The Rwanda CRR says that skills shortages are undermining land registration,175 while the South Africa CRR points to similar problems at local government level.176 In respect of the private sector, a lack of skills is undermining the business climate and making it more difficult for firms to operate competitively.177 The specific issues are many and varied. Shortages of higher level technical and professional skills are harming such fields as the financial sector.178 Many work seekers have qualifications, but not suitable to existing vacancies.179 Entrepreneurship is suffering from a lack of skills on the part of aspirant entrepreneurs.180 Even the informal 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 Bottleneck 8: Under-development of agriculture Concept While agriculture has remained the mainstay of most economies in Africa, the challenges are also fairly wellknown. African agriculture is largely characterised by traditional, small-holder and subsistence farming. According to the African Development Bank (AfDB), as of 2016 agriculture ―provides jobs for more than 60% of the continent‘s workforce‖, yet it ―accounts for less than a quarter of total exports‖.184 Africa spends over USD 35 billion on food imports alone annually185 while approximately one in every four Africans is Kenya CRR, p. 166: Lesotho CRR, p. 174. South Africa CRR, pp. 109, 147. Algeria CRR, p. 323. Benin CRR, p. 82; Uganda CRR, pp. 92, 233; Nigeria CRR, pp. 107-108, 177. Lesotho CRR, p. 81; Burkina Faso CRR, pp. 175, 208. Rwanda CRR, p. 111. South Africa CRR, pp. 88, 107, 109. Lesotho CRR, p. 137; Mozambique CRR, p. 162; Sierra Leone CRR, p. 223; Kenya CRR, p. 164. Mauritius CRR, p. 275; Uganda CRR, p. 199; Kenya CRR, p. 166; South Africa CRR, pp. 127-128, 131-132, 171. Mauritius CRR, p. 243. Kenya CRR, pp. 219, 248. 181 182 183 184 185 43 Ghana CRR, p. 83. Kenya CRR, p. 106. Lesotho CRR, p. 96; Uganda CRR, p. 199. AfDB, OECD and UNDP, African Economic Outlook 2017: Entrepreneurship and Industrialisation (2017) p. 77. AfDB, OECD, and UNDP (2017), p. 77.