and fragmented‘.140 Nigeria has unreliable roads and unreliable power supply.141 Sierra Leone‘s roads and port are inadequate to its needs.142 Burkina Faso and Uganda suffer from inadequate road infrastructure and energy.143 What the APRM does about underdeveloped infrastructure This issue is dealt with in the Questionnaire under the EGM thematic area, where Objective 1 deals with design and implementation of economic policies for sustainable development and question number 6 asks: ―What are the major development initiatives undertaken to improve the energy, services, transport and communication infrastructure in your country?‖ Also, some APRM standards are directly relevant to infrastructure:     The list goes on but, encouragingly, data collected by the Infrastructure Consortium for Africa (ICA) – a cooperative initiative of donor countries and agencies – indicate that progress has been made in finding the required financing. Overall financial commitments to infrastructure development came to $74.6bn in 2014.144 This figure is actually lower than the commitments the ICA recorded for 2012 and 2013, which stood at $89.3bn and $99.6bn respectively.145 That these amounts, very substantial and equalling much of what was envisaged in 2010, were committed in spite of prevailing global economic difficulties only underlines the scale of achievement in mobilising resources. The African private sector has also been involved, although it tends to be concentrated in a few sectors, notably ICT. OAU, Memorandum of Understanding, Conference on Security, Stability, Development and Co-operation in Africa (2002, Durban, South Africa) OAU, The New Partnership for Africa‘s Development (NEPAD) (2001) OAU, Treaty Establishing the African Economic Community (1991, Abuja, Nigeria), and UN, World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development (2002, Johannesburg, South Africa). This implies that significant financial resources necessary for the continent‘s infrastructural development are available, while the need to look beyond financing is not always well appreciated. Non-financial factors are in fact central to dealing with Africa‘s infrastructural challenges. As Amadou Sy commented, ‗there is evidence that efficiency, not financing, is often the barrier to investment.‘ 146 He draws attention to research by the IMF147 indicating that some 40% of the potential value of public investment in low income countries disappears as a result of such factors as time delays, cost overruns and poor maintenance. To correct these problems, Africa requires stronger and more effective institutions to manage infrastructure projects – from project conceptualisation through implementation, to management and maintenance. This line of argument is taken up by the AfDB: 148 The standards envision Africa‘s infrastructure, such as roads, railway lines and ICT, being radically expanded and the infrastructure deficit bridged. The CSSDCA MoU calls for an ‗increased investment in physical infrastructure (transport and telecommunications) as a ratio of GDP to the level that obtains in middle-income countries and social infrastructure to about 10% of GDP by the year 2020 and the development and interconnection of intra-African transport and communication networks and services.‘ Infrastructural expansion is also axiomatic to Agenda 2063. It notes that to sustain and extend the continent‘s growth, expanded infrastructure of all kinds will be needed.136 140 141 The challenge posed to Africa‘s development due to poor infrastructure is reflected in the CRRs. Generally poor infrastructure is listed as a hindrance to business in most of the reports.137 For example, the Algeria CRR draws attention to the poor state of some of the country‘s roads.138 The Kenya CRR discusses unpaved roads, inadequate rail networks, the poor functioning of the port of Mombasa as well as high telecom costs.139 The Tanzania CRR notes water and power deficits, a poor road network and described ICT in the country as ‗limited 136 137 138 139 142 143 144 145 146 Agenda 2063, p. 11-12. Ghana CRR, p. 85; Rwanda CRR, pp. 8384; Benin CRR, pp.192-193; Mozambique CRR, p. 206; Zambia CRR, p. 191; Lesotho CRR, pp. 148-149. Algeria CRR, p. 212. Kenya CRR, pp. 166,167. 147 148 37 Tanzania CRR, pp. 199, 202, 204. Nigeria CRR, pp. 220-221. Sierra Leone CRR, p. 234. Burkina Faso CRR, p. 254, 259; Uganda CRR, p. 182. Infrastructure Consortium for Africa, Infrastructure financing trends in Africa – 2014 (2015) p. 9. Infrastructure Consortium for Africa, Infrastructure financing trends in Africa – 2012 (2013) p. 14; Infrastructure Consortium for Africa, Infrastructure financing trends in Africa – 2013, (2014) p. 15. Sy A, „Impediment to growth‟, Finance and Development (June 2016) p. 27. See IMF, Making public investment more efficient (IMF Staff Report, June 2015). AfDB, An integrated approach to infrastructure provision in Africa (April 2013) p. 16.