the OAU of the need for popular popular-based political processes to end conflict, attain durable peace and manage the refugee crisis. Over time, a number of instruments and resolutions on these key themes were adopted. The OAU Declaration on a Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution (Cairo Declaration) of 1993 reveals a determination to end conflict through addressing Africa’s governance challenge. African leaders took stock of the nexus between the conditions for peace, stability and security and economic development and democratic transformation, and how deficits in these areas undermined the ability of countries to meet citizen’s socio-economic needs. As a result of structural inequalities giving rise to conflict, Africa experienced a rise in refugees and IDPs; By 1993, the continent had 5.2 million refugees and 13 million IDPs.98 The Declaration adopted an anticipatory and preventative approach to conflict and the need for peacemaking and peacebuilding efforts to avert degeneration into intense or generalised conflicts. Despite these weighty pronouncements, governance crises and economic stagnation continued to feature within most member states, perpetuating violent conflicts in Africa.99 In many ways, the Conference on Security, Stability, Development and Cooperation in Africa (CSSDCA) adopted in 2000 by the AU propounded a comprehensive approach to governance, peace and security. 100 The CSSDCA conceptualized security to include the economic, political, social and environmental dimensions of the individual, family, and community, local and national life. Importantly, it noted that ‘the security of a nation must be based on the security of the life of the individual citizens to live in peace and to satisfy basic needs while being able to participate fully in societal affairs and enjoying freedom and fundamental human rights.’ It affirmed that democracy, good governance, respect for human and peoples’ rights and the rule of law are prerequisites for the security, stability and development of Africa. By linking the security of the nation to individual citizens rights to live in peace, satisfy basic needs and participate fully in governance, the CSSDCA underscored the 98 Muyangwa M and Vogt M ‘An Assessment of the OAU Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution’ International Peace Academy, 2000 New York 99 Ibok S ‘Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution in Africa’ 2000. Available at http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/CAFRAD/UNPAN011836.pdf 100 AHG/Decl.4 (XXXVI) adopted by the 36th decision of the ordinary summit of the Heads of State and Government in 2000 39