72 Zvobgo and Dziva/African Women’s Rights Protocol in Zimbabwe colleges and 42.1 per cent in universities.64 Women’s access to education is one of the main drivers of equality and their enlightenment for political participation. Educated women have improved skills, selfesteem and are likely to be appointed in key government posts and political positions. Thus, women empowerment and affirmative action measures have long-term potential to break inequalities hindering the advancement of women as voters, potential job seekers and candidates for appointments in public offices. 3.3 Practices by political parties The task of ensuring women participation in public life extends beyond the role of the state to include political parties. Over the last years, political parties in Zimbabwe, including the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC-T), and Zimbabwe African National Union Patriotic Front (ZANU PF) have been consistent in engendering their structures through their women’s wings. Women’s wings provide avenues for women to be active participants, and to learn political and decisionmaking skills, and develop networks within political parties.65 Political parties in Zimbabwe have established various committees to mainstream gender equality in party decisions and to bring about desired outcomes of the Protocol. The MDC-T has a gender committee which carry out gender analysis of party policies and proceedings.66 Similarly, ZANU PF’s structures comprises of at least one-third of women in the party’s principal organs, namely the Politburo, Central Committee, Provinces, District Committees, the Branch Committees and the Cell/Village Committees.67 As supreme decision-making structures, within ZANU PF, engendering of these structures develop women’s political skills and accords women the opportunity to partake in matters of concern to them. According to the UNDP,68 political parties are the primary and most direct vehicle through which women can access elected office and political leadership. Thus, participation of women in party politics remains a key determinant of their prospects for political empowerment, particularly in local government, National Assembly and Cabinet. Political parties improve outcomes of the Protocol through reservation of seats or constituencies for women to compete against each other. In South Africa, this reservation of constituencies for women members by the African National Congress proved an effective 64 ZimStats (n 63 above). United Nations Department of Public Administration, Women and elections: a guide to promoting the participation of women in elections (United Nations Department of Public Administration: United Nations 2005). 66 UN Women Zimbabwean women in conflict: transformation and peace building, past experience, future opportunities (2013). 67 L Sachikonye Political parties and the democratic process in Zimbabwe EISA Research Report (2005) 16. 68 UNDP & NDI Empowering women for stronger political parties: a good practices guide to promote women’s political participation (2011). 65