    reduce the possibilities of military intervention politics.70 The result has been a dearth professionalism in the security services. This expressed in various ways, such as the politicisation the security services, indiscipline and corruption. OAU, Memorandum of Understanding, Conference on Security, Stability, Development and Co-operation in Africa (2002, Durban, South Africa) OAU, The New Partnership for Africa‘s Development (NEPAD) (2001) OAU, Solemn Declaration, Conference on Security, Stability, Development and Cooperation in Africa (2000, Lomé, Togo) UN, Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (1949, Geneva, Switzerland) in of is of The role of the military is discussed in many of the APRM country review reports. The Nigeria CRR, for example, notes that the military has been called upon to intervene in violent conflicts, such as the insurgency in the Niger Delta and against Boko Haram in the north. While noting that the security forces are increasingly subject to the rule of law,71 it also adds: ‗The reliance on the police and army has unfortunately aggravated rather than alleviated the situation. The state of affairs is worsened by the fact that key state institutions such as the army, police and judiciary are usually permeated by ethnic interests to such an extent that the state‘s actions appear to be barely rational.‘72 Likewise, the Lesotho CRR stresses the efforts made to bring the military under civilian control and the reform of the country‘s police so as to enable it to operate efficiently in a democratic society. 73 The Algeria CRR observes that the army has remained the backbone of power, having participated actively in decision-making and having had a conscious role assigned to it. However, the Algeria CRR also records that security forces sometimes operate with disregard for the law.74 The CRR calls for the role of the army to evolve in order to guarantee the stability of institutions of the country.75 The Zambia CRR noted that there is insufficient oversight of the military, which considers itself above the law and not obligated to adhere to financial regulations.76 In Burkina Faso, concerns are expressed over conflicts that have arisen between civilians and the military. These do not have the character of organised violence or insurgencies, but rather appear to reflect illdiscipline on the part of some soldiers. The report comments:77 For the most part, these standards deal with broad conceptual issues around security. Most of them do this only briefly, security often being one of many issues discussed. They reflect a rejection of unconstitutional changes of government (a major theme after the wave of democratisation that occurred since the 1990s). They present a view of security that goes beyond the security services, and incorporates governance, diplomacy and development. The NEPAD Declaration, for example, envisions strengthening states‘ capabilities to deal with security threats, while the CSSDCA Memorandum requires civilian control over the military. Implied in some of them is the need for professionalism and discipline in the security services. The standards do not deal with the practical aspects of Africa‘s security services – their organisation, training or their relationship to other arms of the state in any detail. Therefore, little guidance exists as to what action states need to take, although cumulatively it seems fair to say that ‗strong‘ and ‗capable‘ security services are needed. It should also be noted that at least one standard – the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples‘ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa – calls for military spending to be reduced to fund increased social spending. This bottleneck thus requires further thinking so as to clearly articulate what measures need to be taken at the national level. The CRRs provide extensive analyses of the functioning – and failures – of the security systems in reviewed countries. During CRM [Country Review Mission] meetings, it appeared that these conflicts are linked to the weaknesses in the system with regard to the recruitment of members of the defence and security forces, to the shortcomings noted in the training programme (namely as regards human rights), and to the failure to maintain discipline and abide by the republican laws. The discussions led to a Militaries Security is a major developmental issue in Africa. Strong and disciplined security forces are an important guarantor of stability for the state and the lives and property of its people. Yet this is not always how the military in African countries has behaved. African militaries are generally small and poorly resourced – yet Africa faces numerous security threats. Personnel are expected to deal with conflict situations that they are not properly prepared for. Such constraints may reflect the general lack of resources prevailing on the continent, but they have also been a matter of deliberate political choice. Civilian rulers often distrust their militaries, and have been known to starve them of resources so as to 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 26 Wrong M, „Why are Africa‟s militaries so disappointingly bad?‟, Foreign Policy (6 June 2014); Chuter D and F Gaub, Understanding Africa‟s armies (ISSue Report No 27, April 2016), pp. 15-16. Nigeria CRR, p. 91. Nigeria CRR, p. 86. Lesotho CRR, pp. 56-59. Algeria CRR, p. 74 Algeria CRR, p. 325. Zambia CRR, p. 92. Burkina Faso CRR, pp. 90-91.