REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA COMBINED SECOND PERIODIC REPORT UNDER THE AFRICAN CHARTER ON HUMAN AND PEOPLE`S RIGHTS and INITIAL REPORT UNDER THE PROTOCOL TO THE AFRICAN CHARTER ON THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN IN AFRICA 126. Government facilitated the establishment of shelters for abused women in South Africa and developed a Shelter Strategy that served as a guideline for service providers rendering services to abused women. Ninety seven (97) shelters have been established in South Africa. Minimum standards for service delivery in shelters were also developed to standardise services in shelters. Furthermore, there is a programme which has been conceptualised as “white and green door” safe houses. These are shelters provided by ordinary people, approved and funded by government, to serve as shelters for women and children who are victims of violence and abuse. At this stage the programme is being rolled out in the province of Gauteng and the Eastern Cape, and rollouts to other provinces are under way. 127. Some studies conducted on domestic violence in South Africa have concluded that statistics estimating the prevalence of domestic violence are likely to be under-inclusive since acts of domestic violence are often not reported. There are several factors that contribute to domestic violence, such as poverty and the subsequent stress,349 alcohol use,350 and a history of violence.351 The risk factors of being a victim of domestic violence include violence in childhood352 and conflict over alcohol use.353 Stereotyping and prejudice 128. South Africa is cognisant that gender-based stereotyping and prejudice is rooted in the gender discourses of masculinity and femininity with concomitant prescribed behaviours, norms and attitudes that ultimately lead to discrimination and gender-based violence. It is an articulation of, or an enforcement of, power hierarchies and structural inequalities that are informed by belief systems, cultural norms and socialization processes. 129. Violence could take the form of trafficking in women and girls for sex trade, forced prostitution, domestic and forced labour and sex tourism. Although violence is a traumatic experience for any human being, gender-based violence is preponderantly inflicted by men on women and girls, including other vulnerable people – such as people with disabilities, children and the elderly. It both reflects and reinforces inequalities between men and women and compromises the health, dignity, security and autonomy of its victims and survivors. Statistics on violence against women 130. Women with abusive and controlling partners are at increased risk of contracting HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases due to an inability to negotiate safe sex or condom use. A survey conducted among 1366 South African women showed that women who were beaten by their partners were 48% more likely to be infected with HIV than those who were not, and those women living in abusive relationships were often unable to seek voluntary testing and counselling services 349 R Jewkes (2002) ‘Intimate Partner Violence: Causes and Prevention’ Lancet 359 1423 at 1424. R Jewkes op cit. note 3 at 1425. 351 Ibid 352 Jewkes, R, Levin J & Penn-Kekana, L at 1612. 353 Ibid at 161 350 172