182. Following on the trend and practice in several African countries (Benin, Ghana, Kenya, and South Africa) that have been through the APRM review process, the CRM suggests that more of such institutions should be created and existing ones strengthened. They could be designed in such as way as to serve as horizontal institutions of accountability and transparency, tantamount to operating as a fourth branch of Government. Political pluralism and periodic competitive electoral politics 183. Competitive party and electoral politics provides the fulcrum around which political succession and the management of diversity now gravitates in Tanzania. The multi-party state (1961 – 1965), the one-party state (1965 – 1992), and the return to a multi-party state since 1992 constitute the historical and socio-cultural background to present-day electoral politics in the country. 184. Although Tanzania was a one-party state between 1965 and 1992, two parties operated in the country between 1965 and 1967. TANU was the sole recognized party in Mainland Tanzania, and the Afro-Shirazi Party the only recognized party in Tanzania Zanzibar before both parties merged to form the CCM, in 1967. General elections have been held on a regular and continuous basis every five years since 1965 (1965, 1970, 1975, 1980, 1985, 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, and 2010). 185. The residual legacy of Tanzania’s long post-colonial constitutional and political history continues in several respects to shape the unfolding dynamics of the politics of electoral reform. This process was set in motion in 1992 with the return to political pluralism in the form of the multi-party state. As a participant at one of the stakeholder meetings organised in Dar es Salaam observed, arguably what occurred in 1992 represented a topdown, “controlled” transition, “controlled” by the CCM, and not a “negotiated,” bottom-up one. 186. Tanzania’s post-multi-party politics has broadened and widened the space for political pluralism and deepened political stability. However, it has neither eroded the hegemony of the CCM nor altered its structural and psychocultural anchors, despite simmering fissures within the Party, which, so far have remained contained. Emergent opposition parties are too weak to take advantage of competitive party and electoral politics to pose a serious challenge to the CCM hegemony. Indeed, the CRM meeting with the political parties revealed that opposition parties suffer from internal division, poor financing, and weak organisation. 187. This brief overview gives the background to the way political reforms have continued to unfold in Tanzania since 1992, through political pluralism, competitive politics, and over constitutional and political policy debates. At the heart of this unfolding dynamic lies the need to strengthen electoral administration and management and, in particular, to redesign electoral institutions, rules, procedures and processes to ensure free, fair and credible elections in the country. This explains why views expressed and attitudes towards competitive party and electoral politics were put with such passion, acuity and vibrancy. During the CRM stakeholder meetings with the political parties in Dar es Salaam and, indeed, across the country the process is seen as instrumental for constructively managing and promoting diversity. 188. The legal framework of electoral governance in Tanzania is made up principally of (i) the 1977 Constitution of the URT; (ii) the 1985 National Elections Act; (iii) the 1979 Local Authorities (Elections) Act; (iv) the 2010 Elections Expenses Act; (v) the 1992 Political Parties Act (Cap. 258); and, (vi) the 1945 Penal Code, Cap. 16. 189. The institutional framework is made up of: a) The National Electoral Commission (NEC), with the constitutional mandate to oversee and conduct general (presidential, parliamentary and council) elections. Headed by a Chairman, “who shall be a Judge of the High Court or a Justice of the Court of Appeal, the Commission has seven other members, comprising the Vice-Chairman, who shall come from “the other part of the Union,” from where the Chairman hails, a member of the Tanganyika Law Society, and five other members, all of whom - including the Chairman - are appointed by the President. The Commission has a Director of Elections, appointed by the President and who serves as its Chief Executive and Secretary. Under the 1985 National Elections Act (Section 7(1)) and the 1979 Local Authorities (Elections) Act (Section 9(1)), City Directors, Municipal Directors, Town Directors, and District Executive Directors are Returning Officers for conducting elections at constituency level. 56