greater understanding between civilians and the defence and security force representatives, and proposals to eradicate conflicts were made. use of torture85 and sexist and misogynistic behaviour86 – the latter being a particular problem when dealing with gender-based or sexual violence. Several CRRs also record instances of political partisanship on the part of police forces87 – a common tactic being to use the discretion afforded them to prevent opposition parties from holding political rallies. The Nigeria CRR sums up the country‘s situation, which is also relevant for many others:88 Policing Police forces do not have the same potential for violent destabilisation as the military. But the more extensive day-to-day contact between police officers and the public make the ability of the police to function effectively and to maintain law and order a matter of profound importance. As with the military, the key concept is professionalism. The CRRs provide rather limited coverage of national police forces, but a number of themes stand out. Greater focus on enhancing police effectiveness has yielded positive improvements in the operational efficiency of the force, but the level of crime remains high. The security forces are now more subject to the rule of law and are formally subordinate to civil authority. Gaps nevertheless remain, particularly as regards the misuse of state security services by some politicians for private, personal purposes. One is the limitations in police capacity, including lack of proper equipment, funding, skills or personnel. To mention a few examples, the Nigeria CRR records a lack of investigative capacity78; the Burkina Faso CRR notes the small and ill-equipped police force to discharge its mandate79, while the Zambia CRR focuses on the underresourcing of the police force.80 As in the case of the military, these factors create difficult working conditions that could have disproportionate impact on the peace and stability of a society. Poor conditions of service often lead to criminal behaviour by members of the police, including bribery and extortion. In Kenya, the CRM was struck by the consistency of complaints over routine intimidation by the police and widespread incidents of petty bribery. The CRR noted many complaints of court cases dragging for years and the inevitable appeal of alternative dispute resolution methods.81 What – or what more – can the APRM do about weak states and institutions Given the sensitivities around state security, this may be an issue where the APRM as a broad public process will find difficulty gaining traction. However, the APRM has drawn attention to abuses associated with the security forces, emphasising these subjects for public discussion. This is positive. Two things to consider may be the following: 1. The APRM may press for the collation of crime statistics at the national level and for their public dissemination regularly and timeously. As has been pointed out earlier in relation to other issues, lack of credible data is a serious impediment to Africa‘s ability to plan and execute policy. Such data are seldom available in Africa, making monitoring of crime difficult. Beyond pushing for countries to commit to building up their statistical capacities, the APRM should equally call on countries with capacity to assist others, which is consonant with the spirit of the APRM. 2. Considering the cross-border nature of much conflict in contemporary Africa, the APRM may explore options to serve as a platform for heads of state and other government officials to discuss them and plan the elements of Reports by Afrobarometer indicate substantial scepticism about the integrity and professionalism of police forces. Some 42% of respondents across 34 African countries said that ‗most‘ or ‗all‘ police officers are corrupt, with a further 38% saying that ‗some of them‘ are. Police officers were by some margin regarded as the most corrupt public officials. At the same time, there was strong support for the critical role played by the police, i.e. to enforce law and order in society.82 Alongside corruption, various other pathologies manifest themselves in the police service. These include ethnic divisions,83 abuse of suspects,84 the 78 79 80 81 82 83 Nigeria CRR, p. 100. Burkina Faso CRR, p. 108. Zambia CRR, p. 144. Kenya CRR, p. 83. Wambua PM, „Police corruption in Africa undermines trust, but support for law enforcement remains strong‟, Afrobarometer Dispatch (No. 56, 2 November 2015). Nigeria CRR, p. 86. 84 85 86 87 88 27 Ghana CRR, p. 26; Tanzania CRR, pp. 52, 55, 72. Zambia CRR, p. 103. Algeria CRR, p. 108; Sierra Leone CRR, p. 160. Sierra Leone CRR, pp. 82, 85; Zambia CRR, p. 90. Nigeria CRR, p. 91.